Streets in Today’s Age

Dissertation Subject: Streets in Today’s Age Introduction: On a wider range, a metropolis is the base of invention, a platform for advancement of world, the stopper of power and hub for all societal, cultural and economic public assistance. Broadly, the metropolis provides solutions to show and unanticipated jobs, because things and phenomena take topographic point in the metropolis – a conglobation of clerisy. The metropolis grows and develops when it is in theodolite ; better the velocity, faster is its rate of advancement. And so is the construct of roads, where the fastest moving options are idealized. A street, though provides traffic motion, is a modest interlingual rendition of a route. Defined by borders of edifices, their fenestrations, adorned with tree lines, public activity is the trademark of a street. A Street marks the theodolite of the metropolis, yet, with the utmost solution happening step of edifice roads, our metropoliss have seen an upward tendency of change overing streets into roads. The thought of streets, in Indian scenario, can non be imagined without the informal activities of economic sector – the shoemaker, the seller, the tea stall, etc. these form the service countries every bit good as absolutely act as a back uping function to an synergistic life in the society. Now, because of the tendency of formalising every sector of economic system and transition of streets into roads, we lose the most of import usher to our societal life. On the contrary, because of the gait of our life, the ‘leftover pieces of streets’ on the present twenty-four hours roads simply warrant their character. For it is imperative that velocity governs the growing of the metropolis and the day-to-day life of its dwellers. Therefore, the really ‘solutions’ to the jobs of the metropolis, are disguised ‘problems’ of the turning metropolis. The thought of this thesis is to place the existent practically feasible stretches of street which can be or hold a range of set uping back into streetscapes. I would look into such stretches of streets and critically analyse its features employed in and around the country ; of how are its border conditions, how the street permeates into activities related specifically of the country. Therefore, while keeping the kernel of streets, this thesis aims to reevaluate the function of streets in the urban cloth of the metropolis activities in today’s visible radiation. Purposes:To understand the function of streets in today’s context.To measure up streets as practical entity to last the demands of the hereafter.To understand the practical deductions and Scopess of streets revivalAim:To research the multiple roles a street dramas in today’s urban context, stressing the usage of streets.To place the indispensable stretches of complete street and its kernel in the part around it.To understand the features of these specimen stretches.To analyse their border conditions, their Scopess of permeableness, degree of integrating with the societal facets of its users, etc.LITERATURE REVIEW: Patrick Geddes and the Metropolis, Partho Dutta The really ‘modern’ construct of urban planning became a outstanding country of treatment in the planning societies and diaries throughout the western universe, when the determination to switch the capital of colonial India from Calcutta to Delhi was taken in 1911. Other urban centres in colonial India of some distinguished bequests excessively came under the scanner of urban contrivers and the discourse of modern planning permeated in many Indian towns and metropoliss. Partho Dutta presents this paper in the 20Thursdaycentury puting to look at the ongoing contextual alterations in the colonial universe with regard to the metropolis of Calcutta. Colonial metropoliss were looked at with a common yarn of concerns and attitudes laid down by the British Empire – that was of the bonus to migration into metropoliss and the jobs of overcrowding and insanitation due to the rapid growing of mill based industries. This led to blight in 1896 and the primary concern of the colonial authorities was to safeguard the countries with important European populations. Thus modern planning in India had its root in the 19th century pandemics ( Gupta N, 1981 ) . Improvement Trusts were set up and the town planning motion gathered a impulse. Though, altering metropoliss meant altering people and therefore in bend meant altering society itself ( Topalov C, 1990 ) . After the efforts of the province to sanitise the family clashed with the traditional Indian impressions of pureness and pollution ( Dutta P, 2012 ) , the colonial town contrivers took an easy manner out by automatically implementing the Haussmannian theoretical account – of cutting wide wrappings of roads across the life colonies for efficient traffic circulation. Here in, Datta introduces Patrick Geddes as a contriver who is ‘culturally informed’ ( Goodfriend D, 1979 ) . Geddes believed that the capitalist modernisation has brought sea-changes, but had been unable to obliterate critical cultural symbols ( Chakraborthy S ) . He argued that the programs of the hereafter could merely be drawn on a thorough disentangling survey of the societal cast of the community. He put forth the ‘the diagnostic or civic survey’ procedure of recovery to ‘feel’ the organic signifier of the metropolis. A complimentary ‘conservative surgery’ to his civic study provided merely the needful intercessions, therefore bettering maximally by minimum devastation. He quotes, Tyrwhitt J ( 1947 ) : â€Å"†¦the method of Conservative Surgery.. , first it shows that the new streets prove non to be truly required since, by merely enlarging the bing lanes, ample communications already exist ; secondly that, with the add-on of some vacant secret plans and the remotion of a few of the most bedraggled and unsanitary houses, these lanes can be greatly improved and every house brought within the range of fresh air every bit good as of stuff sanitation – a point on which the more pretentious method invariably fails, as is apparent on every plan.† With the rules of Geddes in topographic point, Partho Dutta trains his gun on the Burrabazar, cardinal Calcutta’s most engorged and of import concern territory ; Geddes’ foremost proper to-be committee in colonial city. Datta describes Barrabazar as, â€Å"†¦ the country was diverse and included stores, godowns, residential edifices and bustis, though commercialisation had lent the whole ward a typical character. Overbuilt with narrow streets, which made it cryptic and impenetrable to authorities bureaus, its insanitation worried decision makers because of its close propinquity to the centre of authorities ( Writers Building ) . †¦ By reconstructing order in this ward, the authorities contrivers wanted to make a buffer between the Indian vicinities to the North and British 1s in the South. †¦ ( by the ) proposed Central Railway Station.† The CIT ( Calcutta Improvement Trust ) indicated that the ‘allocation’ of streets, cloacas and railroad lines seemed the lone manner to order the metropolis ( Boyer C, 1994 ) . Thus a destruction temper was set in the heads of the functionaries. When all other European disciplinary proficient functionaries had called in for a destruction, Patrick Geddes was called in for his study, as a town contriver, on the Barrabazar destruction thrust. As Ram Guha ( 2005 ) points out, Geddes confronted two major strains in modern planning at odds with each other. â€Å"†¦ the close association of concern demands to urban planning: the proliferation of capital had ever meant to restructuring of spaces†¦ and the other being the curse of modern be aftering how to rehouse the displaced working categories without arousing category conflict.† His study recommended three parametric quantities ; foremost, the debut of new street should aline east- West axis, the natural motion of goods and traffic flow. Second, the north eastern portion of Barrabazar was to retain its residential character and to develop the west country into modern concern Centre. Third, the minimum destruction of unsanitary belongings to happen, would be rebuild maintaining traditional urban signifiers in head to maintain the character of the territory intact. The CIT programs were motorized conveyance based, but harmonizing to Geddes, betterment in prosaic circulation was the current demand within Barrabazar, since grounds of mass circulation by pes, human portage and manus driven carts was excessively apparent. He was really vocal on the saving and extension of lanes, as Dutta quotes Geddes ( 1919 ) : â€Å"A lane after all is a paving without a route beside it, and some people value its soundlessness ; while its narrow breadth and shadiness gives coolness also.† His program showed hierarchy of roads – lanes for walkers, streets for assorted traffic, and roads for intra-city communicating. This would avoid choke offing up of individual avenues with motors, worlds, animate beings, thereby haltering mobility. His separation of traffic maps enabled faster velocity for vehicles and mobility for commercialism, still continuing the bing channels of communicating. Among some other natural intercessions discussed in his paper, Partho Dutta high spots on Geddes’ strategy for little unfastened infinites between houses – where he suggested planting of few trees to keep the holiness of these little countries and promote people to maintain them clean ( Geddes P, 1919 ) . His thought to do survive an unfastened infinite was to incorporate it with the community instead than go forthing it as a healthful ‘void† , as Parkss and gardens. Towards the terminal, Dutta puts frontward critics to Geddes’ work yet how his attempts could non stand tall to the might of the colonial powers meant for suppressing the province. Even though the paper is a record of Patrick Geddes’ work on Barra Bazar, Partho Dutta had to the full been successful in showing the Geddesian attack to street forms and public kingdom, by preservation of traditional ethos in town planning. His thought of non giving in to meaningless modernisation fad and seeking the optimum from the remainder inspires a manner towards look intoing the inquiries in my thesis. Autochthonal Modernities, Negotiating Architecture and Urbanism, Jyoti Hosagrahar A book written on the urban history of Delhi,Autochthonal Modernitiesis ambitious in its attempt to show the important alterations in the societal and physical surroundings of Delhi, in a period of a century between 1857 and 1947. Harmonizing to Jyoti Hosagrahar, these alterations though â€Å"modern† in their attack, were toned to autochthonal prescriptions, thereby coining the term, â€Å"Indigenous Modernities† ( Appadurai A, 1996 ) . The modernisation in Delhi was non an infliction from outside, but a homegrown endeavor germinating from within bing societal cloth. The modernisation of Delhi is seen in a intercrossed signifier, non ideal unidirectional type as envisaged by the planetary infliction of modernness. Infrastructure development, usage of new engineerings, debut of fresh public establishments, and growing of new lodging typologies are the illustrations of these intercrossed signifiers. Every alteration in the societal imposts and physical infinites was chal lenged, bargained, abandoned, and adjusted. The terminal consequence of which was non a picket or a lacking version of European modernism, but something which imbibed traditional and modern, old and new ; coexistence adopted anxiously ( Gupta N, 1981 ) . Hosagrahar establishes the metropolis of Delhi as a cultural landscape and sets the temper of the reader in the clip frame which rendered the glances of modernness in it. In five chapters she traces the decomposition of the domestic infinites ofhavelis ;the backdown of the community from the public kingdom ; the dislocation of traditional wellness and healthful systems ; denationalization ; and the commodification of community belongings. A brawny monetary value of modernisation was to be paid as it combined urban reforms with profit-seeking motivations. The many imposed societal alterations were cancerous and had the possible to destruct the societal cloth. However, the colonised dwellers proved resilient and appropriated modernness in ways they saw tantrum, guaranting their endurance and heightening their life chances. Delhi survived the going of feudal system, the birth of patriotism, and the attainment of independency, all in less than a century. The book highlights the monetary value that the metropolis paid and its dirty additions in private and public domains. In the wake of the Mutiny/First War of Independence ( 1857 ) ,havelis, abodes of landowning aristocracy, suffered from disregard and were converted into warehouses and smaller residential units ( Verma P and Shankar S, 1992 ) . These big houses had been the pillar of vicinities, because the residents supported craftsmans and their trades. At the same clip, the lifting entrepreneurial categories sought to populate in intercrossed versions of courtyard lodging and European-style cottages. Although the courtyards shrank and drawn-out households fragmented, older life styles did non vanish wholly. Attempts to bring forth public infinites as apublic goodwere contested passionately, accustomed as the occupants were to utilizing available land for their ain intents. Enforcement of bylaws and other ordinances met with considerable opposition since affairs refering belongings rights and territorial invasions had antecedently been resolved within the community or arbitrated by the seniors. New urban infinites generated by the edifice of establishments such as the town hall became the locales for nationalist presentations, so a sort of civic kingdom, independent of spiritual or royal associations, did emerge, even though it had a conflict-ridden generation. New medical systems of cognition and the pattern of their engineerings produced infinites and built signifiers — infirmaries and dispensaries — that did non wholly displace the stores ofhakimsandvaids, practicians ofunaniandayurvedicsystems of traditional medical specialty. Similarly municipal services including pipe d-water supply, sewerage systems, and trash aggregation did non ensue in the ostracism of sweepers. Hosagrahar draws upon municipal archives and her ain interviews with Delhi occupants to compose an urban narration that is handsomely illustrated with historic maps and exposure. The earlier chapters onhavelis, streets, and geographicss of wellness brand for more interesting reading than the last two chapters on land development and new lodging undertakings meant to make a â€Å" modern † citizen. In the narrative Hosagrahar sketches out for us, neither the coloniser nor the colonised appears to move out of baronial motivations, although the capable population deserves our understanding in their efforts to do sense of rapid societal alterations and adapt to them. While there was no straight-out rejection of modernness ( except possibly the last despairing gesture of rebellion in 1857 ) , there was considerable opposition to bumbling autocratic steps every bit good as reformer dockets. Private involvements, more frequently than non, triumphed over public good. In the 21st century, a new embodiment of colonialism, globalisation, is one time once more altering the urban landscape of Delhi. Just as sectors such as Civil Lines, Cantonment, and New Delhi consumed a far greater figure of resources and were dependent upon old Delhi for services, so make the new satellite metropoliss of Gurgaon and Noida depend upon older subdivisions of the metropolis. And merely as New Delhi ‘s landscape was â€Å" modern † in its definition, resting upon its differences from Shahjahanbad/old Delhi, so make these new developments aspire to a feel and image that isplanetary, derived from Western paradigms ( King A, 2004 ) .Dualities abound in post-independence Delhi. Municipal services in most subdivisions remain unequal, chunky settlements proliferate, there is an acute H2O deficit, and most citizens do non hold entree to healthful systems. This landscape of poverty is juxtaposed with a landscape of luxury in shopping promenades, skyscrapers, and hu ge verdure. With hindsight, it is alluring to categorise the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century attempts as a failed or uncomplete undertaking of modernness, destined to prevail in its mutant signifier into the following century ( Sinha A, 2007 ) . Possibly the flight of modernness would hold been different had its undertakings been implemented with greater sensitiveness to cultural codifications and customary patterns ; we should be after for the hereafter consequently. REFERENCE List: Gupta Narayani, 1981, Delhi Between Two Empires, 1803-1931: Society Government and Urban Growth, Oxford University Press, Delhi. Topalov Christian, August, 1990,‘From the â€Å"social question† to â€Å"urban problems† : Reformers and the working categories at the bend of 20th century’ ,International Social Science Journal, No.125. Dutta Partho, 2012, Patrick Geddes and the Metropolis, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi, pg. 3 Goodfriend Doughlas E, winter, 1979, ‘Nagar Yoga: The Culturally Informed Town Planning of Patrick Geddes in India 1914- 24’ ,Human Organization38, No. 4. Insight by late Prof. Satyesh Chakraborthy, Calcutta Tyrwhitt Jacqueline, 1947, Ed. Patrick Geddes in India, Lund Humphries, London, pg. 41 Guha Ram,2001, Patrick Geddes and Ecological Town Planning in India, a talk at the Urban Design Research Institute, Bombay, October 5, 2001. Boyer M. Christian, 1994,Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning, Cambridge, Mass. , MIT Press, 1983, pg 288 Geddes Patrick, Barra Bazar Improvement, A Report ( Calcutta: Corporation Press, 1919 ) pg 12 Geddes Patrick, Barra Bazar Improvement, A Report ( Calcutta: Corporation Press, 1919 ) pg.32 Hosagrahar Jyoti, 2005, Autochthonal Modernities: Negotiating Architecture and Urbanism, Routledge, London. Appadurai Arjun, 1996,Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, pg3 Gupta Narayani, 1981, Delhi Between Two Empires, 1803-1931: Society Government and Urban Growth, Oxford University Press, Delhi. Verma Pawan and Shankar Sandeep, 1992,Sign of the zodiacs at Dusk: the Havelis of Old Delhi; Spantech Publications, New Delhi. Sinha Amita, Report on Hosagrahar’s Delhi Identity, February 2007 King Anthony, 2004,Spaces of Global Culture: Architecture, Urbanism, Identity, Routledge, New York.

Baldwin Notes of a Native Son Analysis Essay

â€Å"Notes of a Native Son† is a first person narrative about James Baldwin who lived with his family in Harlem during a difficult time for the equal rights movement in America. Racism through Baldwin’s experience shows its potential to feed off of itself in a vicious cycle, with one person’s hate leading to someone else’s. He has first hand experience with this through his father, a man who, while considered free, felt the pressures of racism throughout his life. The hate Baldwin’s father had towards white people was a reflection of the current state of equal rights in the country. Baldwin finally understands his father’s feelings when he moves to New Jersey and sees racism for himself. He eventually comes full circle to realize the true problem with racism, but he is too late to reconcile with his father. The story begins with a nineteen-year-old James Baldwin at his father’s funeral. Looking back on the time he spent with his fathe r, Baldwin realizes that he very rarely spoke to his father and had almost no relationship with him. Baldwin credits this partially to the fact that both him and his father were stubborn and prideful, but also maintains his father â€Å"could be chilling in the pulpit and indescribably cruel in his personal life and he was certainly the most bitter man I have ever met; yet it must be said that there was something else to him, buried in him, which lent him his tremendous power and, even, a rather crushing charm† (Baldwin 588). This bitterness is a natural reaction to the racial tensions during Baldwin’s father’s life. Baldwin remembers his father as an angry man who distrusted all white people because he was among the first generations of free men and, during his time, racism was very prevalent in the United States. His father had been ill a long time and ended up dying of tuberculosis. However, he was also sick with paranoia; this â€Å"disease of his mind allowed the disease of his body to destroy him† (Baldwin 590). Baldwin actually comments that throughout his whole life, he never remembers a time where any of his brothers or sisters was actually happy to see their father. His father always warned his children not to trust white people, and often warned that some of them may be nice from time to time, but that none of them were to be trusted. However, as an innocent child, Baldwin wanted to believe that white people were not all inherently evil like his father said. This hope was e mbodied by one of Baldwin’s teachers who helped him and his family for a time when ’s father got laid off from his job. However as Baldwin grows  older, he begins to see why his father was so bitter toward white people. He moves to New Jersey where he realizes, to his surprise, that even in northern states, to be a negro meant that â€Å"one was never looked at but was simply at the mercy of the reflexes of the color of one’s skin caused in other people†(592). While living in New Jersey, he feels everyone trying to â€Å"eject† him (592); he is fired from his job and re-hired three times in one year. On his last night in New Jersey, he goes to Trenton with a friend for drinks and a movie. When they went to the â€Å"American Diner† they were refused service because the diner â€Å"didn’t serve negroes† (593). Soon after, he was refused service again and nearly assaulted a waitress. This represents the moment where he truly understands his father’s anger. He now feels upset and has a wish too reconcile with his father, but obviously no longer has the opportunity to do so. Baldwin reminisces on a time when he went to see his father during the illness, and the last time before he died. He had put off seeing him for so long because he did not want to see his father in the state he was in. He had hated his father for the man he once was but seeing who he had become only made Baldwin feel sorry for him. He realizes that he shouldn’t have hated his father for how he felt and wishes he were there to talk to him. Baldwin understands that hatred not only hurts the people being hated, it also destroys the man who hates, and real change will only happen if we can separate ourselves from this hate on both sides. Baldwin sees many different sides of racism throughout his life; from a child who disagrees with his father’s hatred of white people, to an adult that also caught the â€Å"illness† that his father had. These experiences eventually bring him to the realization of the underlying problem of racism. Baldwin sees the sickness that the country suffers from does not stem solely from one side spreading hate, but from both sides equally making it that way. Although whites spread racism and hate, blacks responded in a similar fashion, which only made the situation worse. When one group hates another, that hatred not only hurts the victims, but also destroys those who hate. â€Å"Hatred, which could destroy so much, never failed to destroy the man who hated and this was an immutable law† (603). The only hope to abolish racism and the hatred that comes along with it is for both sides to try and understand each other to overcome the hate. I agree with Baldwin when he  says , â€Å"it now had been laid to my charge to keep my own heart free of hatred and despair† (604). It is up to us to separate ourselves from the hate so all can understand and improve the lives of others instead of destroying them.

Organization development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 7

Organization development - Essay Example The curiosity of the old and loyal employees increases with time, and they ask more questions frequently about the ways the organization will manage their relationship wit the company and their reward on retirement. These questions are considered to be a challenge for the organization development. Organizations need to plan, develop and implement ways to motivate employees and show their loyalty and sincerity to their employees with the same enthusiasm. Another challenge for organizations is to maintain a peaceful environment for its workers (Cummings & Worley, 2014). Organization development faces risks when cases of discrimination arise in the organization on the basis of gender, age, and other unethical issues. Organization development is, therefore, responsible for avoiding such acts of discrimination to maintain the reputation of the firm. The future of organization development seems to be bright and promising. Unfortunately, there are some factors that can cause hindrance in the success of the organizational development. Factors that determine the future of organization include values of organizational management, training level of employees and spreading of information about OD techniques. Additionally, global economic changes, latest technology, and social & political environment could have a significant effect on the future of organization development (Bradford & Burke,

Short critical reflection paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Short critical reflection paper - Assignment Example "The survey proves that mobile devices and technology have changed the traditional college experience and the role technology plays in students academic abilities and success," said Jessica Nelson of CourseSmart. "Todays students are truly carrying a digital backpack." (Olavsrud, 2011) Keeping up with the increasing trends, instructors are also doing their best to use the digital means for teaching. Research concludes that about ninety seven percent of the students receive digital course material from their instructors each day. â€Å"Cyber bullying is bullying through email, instant messaging (IMing), chat room exchanges, Web site posts, or digital messages or images send to a cellular phone or personal digital assistant (PDA)† (as quoted from Olweus,2011). Cyber bullying has been on an alarming rise since the past 5 years. According statistics published in the ‘CyberBullying Alert’ site, the National Crime Prevention Centre has quoted the following statistics about cyber bullying in the last five years: The reasons behind Cyber Bullying primarily are that due to ineffective and non-promulgation of privacy laws abusers tend to make false identities over social media and thus openly abuse other users often youngsters. It is because of cyber bullying and some other misuse of the social web that it is highly recommended that ethical and social guidelines be defined and followed whenever interacting over the said media. There are high possibilities that due to the promulgation of internet etiquette guidelines cyber bullying would reduce considerably. The world is not flat for all of us. Consider a haircut†¦can you outsource that? What about repairs on your home? Is that service part of the â€Å"flat† world coined by Friedman? So then, what is globalization all about and how is technology one of the drivers? The world definitely is not flat in line with what Friedman says. There are geographical and

Replacing the income tax with a national sales tax Research Paper

Replacing the income tax with a national sales tax - Research Paper Example As might be expected, one of the reasons for why a value added tax/sales tax/†fair tax† has not caught on within the United States is due to the fact that a preponderance of negative trade-offs exist with regards to implementing this. As a function of seeking to understand this issue to a more full and complete degree, the following analysis will present the reader with an understanding of the way in which a federal sales tax represents both positive and negative externalities and could ultimately harm many at risk individuals within the current society. Through such a level of argumentation, this particular researcher will seek to expound upon the complexities of a federal sales tax and the manner through which the trade-offs for this particular approach compare to the current income tax structure that currently exists. Although the analysis will most certainly go into a greater level of death concerning each of the pros and cons of a potential federal sales tax, figure 1.0 below helps to sustain sleep illustrate some of the key points that will be under discussion within this brief analysis. Figure 1.0 Trade-offs of a nation-wide federal sales tax structure       Pros levels the playing field between all tax payers    aids investments       benefits businesses       stimulates saving       eliminates IRS and the headache of "filing taxes"       Cons       disproportionate impact upon the elderly    disproportionate impact upon the poor       lack of deductions for expenses       depends too much on spending       increases potential for tax evasion    As can be seen, the main benefits that a federally mandated sales tax could incur would most certainly be with regards to leveling the playing field between all taxpayers within the system. The current system is one that places an undue level of stress upon certain individuals within society while others do not have any tax burden whatsoever (Jones 6). As suc h, a federally mandated sales tax would be a system that would invariably change this dynamic and ensure that each individual who participate in the economy would be a same rate. Another added benefit is with regards to the fact that a nationally mandated sales tax would in fact serve to increase investment. Due to the fact that investments themselves and savings would not be taxed, individuals would come to the realization that a heavy national sales tax burden would encourage them to save their money rather than spend it. By much the same token, a direct level of benefit would be with regards to businesses as they would no longer have the headache of engaging with the Internal Revenue Service and providing certain levels of withholdings (Ling & Petrova 371). Furthermore, it can also be understood that eliminating a federal income tax would also have the added benefit of doing away with an incredibly costly and inefficient Internal Revenue Service; a branch of the government that i s recently come under a great deal of scrutiny recently for its unjust, unethical, and illogical political torment of those that have alternative views to the current administration. However, it must not be understood that simply eliminating the income tax is going to be a solution that invariably benefits each and every participant within the economy. For instance, the first and most salient concern is with regards t

Individual BUISINESS REPORT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Individual BUISINESS REPORT - Essay Example However, the success of food enterprise in the UK is not guaranteed following the bloated number of operators, ranging from manufacturers, to wholesalers, to retailers. Nature Foods plays the role of a retailer in the UK market. The company engages in the manufacture and packaging of imported raw food before distributing their products across the UK. The General Market Environment and Market Findings in the U.K Processed foods have increasingly become popular across the globe. Variant food products are manufactured to meet different consumer needs, tastes, and preferences. The food market environment is generally competitive, characterized by myriad players and operators. The creativity and innovativeness of an enterprise is the primary basis of survival in the food industry, especially in relation to capturing a significant market share (Brennan & Grandison, 2012, p.426). Firms undertake continuous strategic planning in order to design ways and means of luring customers to buy. The core objective of a food enterprise is creating a reliable customer base by providing products that meet their expectations in terms of price, quality, and utility. The UK food market has been found to prefer to go local due to a number of factors. Firstly, following environmental concerns, consumers prefer locally grown, produced, or manufactured food products. This finding substantially affects food imports in whatever state; raw or processed. On the same note, food distribution over long distance has also been put at stake. Secondly, the manufacturing and packaging processes are becoming increasingly important to assess for costs. This aspect centrally affects the operational spending of an enterprise, and subsequently influences revenue generation and profitability. Finally, consumers of food products are going natural, meaning that food products containing artificial ingredients are consistently losing their position in the food industry (Jack, 2009, p.279). This implies that t he tastes and preferences of customers are shifting from artificial food ingredients to natural ingredients. Impacts of the Findings on the Economic Future of Nature Foods Ltd The environmental concerns by consumers have resulted in prioritizing local food products over imported raw and/or processed foods. Nature Foods Ltd imports raw food from different countries before it undertakes manufacturing, packaging, and distribution of the final food products across the UK. When consumers prefer locally grown, produced, or manufactured food products while the company imports raw food for further processing threatens the overall operations and business aspects of the company (Sinha, 2007, p.798). In other words, if necessary steps, actions, strategies, and plans are not taken, the company is likely to run out of business. It is important to note that consumers are rational when it comes to spending. This implies that consumers seek to maximize their utility at the minimum cost possible (Hu tter, 2011, p.111). In so doing, they factor in their needs, tastes, and preferences. The pricing policies that Nature Foods has adopted and the quality of its products can take the company a long way in terms of operational success. However, the opposite is true if the company fails to adjust to consumer needs. In other words the economic future of the company is in jeopardy if the company fails to make adjustments and meet consumer needs as they change. Low

Animal Cruelty Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Animal Cruelty - Essay Example This paper will examine the topic of animal cruelty in details by discussing various emerging issues and themes arising from the topic. Animal brutality investigations and trials have become regular dealings that interest extensive responsiveness. They cause massive emotion and attention, yet they can be difficult to follow. While certain people may see these cases as unimportant, actions against offenders of these crimes are being prosecuted like any other criminals. Animal cruelty is a crime as serious as any other cruelty crimes. Animal cruelty does not involve just beating up an animal. It also involves denying an animal food, water, basic medical care and shelter. Moreover, many animals are also protected by the law (Arluk 183). The neglect of animal can be classified into two sections. They are simple and gross neglect. Simple neglect involves depriving an animal of basic needs. It is normally not viewed as a crime and is usually resolved by intervention by animal control and care by educating the people on proper animal care. Gross neglect involves willful cruelty and malice towards an animal. Willful neglect is prosecutable by law as it is considered a serious crime. Avoidance of pointless animal abuse has been fundamental in laws in Western people for eras (Arluk 186). Governments and metropolises have reacted to the wellbeing of citizens by increasing the punishments for acts of brutality and providing better means for the investigation and trial of these offenses. The animal welfare states that animals can be used for food, clothing and research as long as this is done in a humane way. An example is the slaughter f cows or goats for domestic or commercial purposes. Animal should not be subjected to any kind of suffering. Animal rights activists disagree with this. They argue that many people may misinterpret the word humane and they rule pout the idea of animals being viewed as commodities.

Sustainability, Crime and Perceptions of Safety in Newcastle Essay - 10

Sustainability, Crime and Perceptions of Safety in Newcastle - Essay Example A sustainable community is one that acknowledges the interconnectedness of social, economic and environmental goals and has a comprehensive set of policies designed to satisfy the multiple benchmarks that define sustainability. According to the Centre for Sustainable Development at Simon Fraser University in Canada, â€Å"Sustainable Community Development (SCD) aims to integrate economic, social and environmental objectives in community development.† (â€Å"Why Sustainable Community Development†) In the context of the city of Newcastle, this cluster of goals and interrelated policies was compiled in The Australia Institute and Newcastle City Council authored report entitled, Indicators of a Sustainable Community, published in 2000. The report begins by noting, â€Å"Sustainability incorporates economic, social and environmental attributes of the City as they affect the quality of life of community members.† It goes on to note that sustainability is not a goal to be achieved but rather a process to be worked on with communities becoming more or less sustainable: â€Å"The challenge for policymakers and others involved in improving the quality of life in Newcastle will be to review these indicators over time and integrate them into management and decision-making processes within the City.† Interestingly, both of these indicators are important although they may, at times, be contradictory. It is not unheard of for crime rates to be dropping in a community at the same time that residents perceive themselves to be less safe. Therefore, this evaluation of crime and public safety in Newcastle will be conducted through analysis of actual crime rates and public perceptions of criminality and safety. The Indicators of a Sustainable Community report clearly identifies as one Desired Outcome improving community perception of safety. It defines the benchmark for this as, â€Å"Measuring how fear of crime impacts on people’s decisions to participate in activities outside the home indicates the community’s  perception of safety.  

Summarize DREAM Act or Arizonas SB 1070 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summarize DREAM Act or Arizonas SB 1070 - Essay Example This particular discussion intends to provide a comparative standpoint about the DREAM Act developed by the government of the US. Furthermore, the essay will also summarize the Act and discuss the same in alignment with numerous elements or dimensions. In general, the Dream Act provides permanent residency and other amenities to the illegal immigrants of the US. These particular benefits are provided to the people against certain grounds that must be mandatorily fulfilled. Notably, there exists a huge figure of people who resides in the nation for acquiring proper education for them or serving in the defense sector. However, despite of their contribution, they always hold the fear that they will be deported any time from the nation. In this regard, the DREAM Act ensure that these people gets amnesty for residing in the US, owing to which they will be liable to get education loans, tuition fees sponsored by the government and reduction of school fees (Immigration Policy Centre, â€Å"The Dream Act†). As per a particular case, a young boy named Reyna Wences from Mexico, has been dealing with the problems of getting proper identity for himself in the US, despite of spending much of his childhood and adulthood days in the country. Though moving to the US was a decision of his parents, he never complained about the same. However, he was aware of the fact that he will never be able to get fully involved within the American society owing to his immigration status. The DREAM Act proposed in the year 2009 certainly provided a ray of hope for him to get identity as a proper American citizen (Wences 504-506). The DREAM Act has been proposed with the aim of ensuring legal liability to undocumented immigrants. It acts as a reward of legal rights to the undocumented immigrants, as they are residing in the nation for a longer period without enjoying any of the basic amenities offered by the government.

Rome and Han china Essay Example for Free

Rome and Han china Essay 1. Roman Republic: The period from 507 to 31 B. C. E. , during which Rome was largely governed by the aristocratic Roman Senate. 2. Roman Senate: A council whose members were the heads of wealthy, landowning families. Originally an advisory body to the early kings, in the era of the Roman Republic the Senate effectively governed the Roman state and the growing empire. Under Senate leadership, Rome conquered an empire of unprecedented extent in the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. In the first century B. C. E.  quarrels among powerful and ambitious senators and failure to address social and economic problems led to civil wars and the emergence of the rule of the emperors. 3. Augustus: (63 B. C. E. -14 c. e. ) Honorific name of Octavian, founder of the Roman Principate, the military dictatorship that replaced the failing rule of the Roman Senate. After defeating all rivals, between 31 B. C. E. and 14 C. E. he laid the groundwork for several centuries of stability and prosperity in the Roman Empire. 4. Roman Principate: A term used to characterize Roman government in the first three centuries C. E. , based on the ambiguous title princeps (first citizen) adopted by Augustus to conceal his military dictatorship. 5. pax romana: Literally, Roman peace, it connoted the stability and prosperity that Roman rule brought to the lands of the Roman Empire in the first two centuries C. E. The movement of people and trade goods along Roman roads and safe seas allowed for the spread of cultural practices, technologies, and religious ideas. 6. Romanization: The process by which the Latin language and Roman culture became dominant in the western provinces of the Roman Empire. The Roman government did not actively seek to Romanize the subject peoples, but indigenous peoples in the provinces often chose to Romanize because of the political and economic advantages that it brought, as well as the allure of Roman success. 7. Jesus: (ca. 5 B. C. E. -34 C. E. ) A Jew from Galilee in northern Israel who sought to reform Jewish beliefs and practices. He was executed as a revolutionary by the Romans. Hailed as the Messiah and son of God by his followers, he became the central figure in Christianity, a belief system that developed in the centuries after his death. 8. aqueduct: A conduit, either elevated or under ground, using gravity to carry water from a source to a location-usually a city-that needed it. The Romans built many aqueducts in a period of substantial urbanization. 9. third-century crisis of the Roman Empire: Historians term for the political, military, and economic turmoil that beset the Roman Empire during much of the third century C. E. : frequent changes of ruler, civil wars, barbarian invasions, decline of urban centers, and near-destruction of long-distance commerce and the monetary economy. After 284 C. E. Diocletian restored order by making fundamental changes. 10. Nero: debauched Roman emperor (stepson of the emperor Claudius) who for centuries was blamed for the great fire of Rome in 64 CE. 11. Cicero: was an orator and statesman of Rome and is generally considered the greatest Latin prose stylist—was executed after criticizing Marc Anthony and the other two members of the Second Triumverate. 12. Tacitus: Roman historian—greatest works: The Annals (in which he blames Nero for the 64 CE fire in Rome) and The Histories 10. Constantine: (285-337 C. E. ) Roman emperor (r. 312-337). After reuniting the Roman Empire, he moved the capital to Constantinople and made Christianity a favored religion. 11. Qin: A people and state in the Wei Valley of eastern China that conquered rival states and created the first Chinese empire (221-206 B. C. E. ). The Qin ruler, Shi Huangdi, standardized many features of Chinese society and ruthlessly marshalled subjects for military and construction projects, engendering hostility that led to the fall of his dynasty shortly after his death. The Qin framework was largely taken over by the succeeding Han Empire. 12. Shi Huangdi: Founder of the short-lived Qin dynasty and creator of the Chinese Empire (r. 221-210 B. C. E. ). He is remembered for his ruthless conquests of rival states, standardization of practices, and forcible organization of labor for military and engineering tasks. His tomb, with its army of life-size terracotta soldiers, has been partially excavated. I. Romes Creation of a Mediterranean Empire, 753 B. C. E. -330 C. E. A. Geography and resources 1. Italy and Sicily are at a crossroads of the Mediterranean and serve as a link between Africa and Europe. Rome is at a crossroads of the Italian peninsula. 2. Italys natural resources included navigable rivers, forests, iron, a mild climate, and enough arable land to support a large population of farmers whose surplus product and labor could be exploited by the Roman state. B. A republic of farmers 1. Rome was inhabited at least as early as 1000 B . C. E. According to legend it was ruled by seven kings between 753 B. C. E. and 507 B. C. E. Kingship was eliminated in 507 B. C. E. when representatives of the senatorial class of large landholders overthrew the last king and established a republic. 2. The centers of political power were the two consuls and the Senate. In practice, the Senate made laws and governed. 3. The Roman family consisted of several generations living under the absolute authority of the oldest living male, the paterfamilias. 4. Society was hierarchical. Families and individuals were tied together by patron/client relationships that institutionalized inequality and gave both sides of the relationship reason to cooperate and to support the status quo. 5. Roman women had relatively more freedom than Greek women, but their legal status was still that of a child, subordinate to the paterfamilias or her own or her husbands family. Eventually procedures evolved which made it possible for some women to become independent after the death of their fathers. 6. Romans worshiped a large number of supernatural spirits as well as major gods such as Jupiter and Mars. Proper performance of ritual ensured that the gods continued to favor the Roman state. C. Expansion in Italy and the Mediterranean 1. Rome began to expand, at first slowly and then very rapidly in the third and second centuries B. C. E. until it became a huge Mediterranean empire. Possible explanations for this expansion include greed, aggressiveness, the need for consuls to prove themselves as military commanders during their one year in office, and a constant fear of being attacked. 2. During the first stage of expansion, Rome conquered the rest of Italy (by 290 B. C. E. ). Rome won the support of the people of Italy by granting them Roman citizenship. As citizens, these people then had to provide soldiers for the military. 3. In the next stages of expansion, Rome first defeated Carthage to gain control over the western Mediterranean and Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain (264-202 B. C. E. ). Next, between 200 and 30 B. C. E. Rome defeated the Hellenistic kingdoms to take over the lands of the Eastern Mediterranean. Between 59 and 51 B. C. E. , Gains Julius Caesar conquered the Celts of Gaul. 4. The Romans used local elite groups to administer and tax the various provinces of their rapidly expanding and far-flung empire. A Roman governor, who served a single one- year term in office, supervised the local administrators. This system was inadequate and prone to corruption. D. The failure of the republic 1. As Rome expanded, the social and economic bases of the Roman republic in Italy were undermined by change. While men from independent farming families were forced to devote their time to military service, large landowners bought up their land to create great estates called latifundia. This meant both a decline in Romes source of soldiers and a decline in food production, as latifundia owners preferred to grow cash crops like grapes rather than staple crops such as wheat. 2. Since slave labor was cheap in an expanding empire, Italian peasants, driven off the land and not employed by the latifundia, drifted into the cities where they formed a fractious unemployed underclass. 3. As the independent farming family that had been the traditional source of soldiers disappeared, Roman commanders built their armies from men from the underclass who tended to give their loyalty, not to the Roman state, but to their commander. This led to generals taking control of politics, to civil wars, and finally to the end of the republican system of government. 4. Julius Caesars grandnephew Octavian (also known as Augustus) took power in 31 B. C. E. , reorganized the Roman government, and ruled as a military dictator. After Augustus died, several members of his family succeeded him. However, the position of emperor was not necessarily hereditary: in the end, armies chose emperors. E. An urban empire 1. About 80 percent of the 50 to 60 million people of the Roman Empire were rural farmers, but the empire was administered through and for a network of cities and towns. In this sense, it was an urban empire. Rome had about a million residents, other large cities (Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage) several hundred thousand each, while many Roman towns had populations of several thousand. 2. In Rome, the upper classes lived in elegant, well-built, well-appointed houses; many aristocrats also owned country villas. The poor lived in dark, dank, fire-prone wooden tenements in squalid slums built in the low-lying parts of the city. 3. Provincial towns imitated Rome both in urban planning and in urban administration. The local elite, who served the interests of Rome, dominated town councils. The local elite also served their communities by using their wealth to construct amenities such as aqueducts) baths, theatres, gardens, temples, and other public works and entertainment projects. 4. Rural life in the Roman empire involved lots of hard work and very little entertainment. Rural people had little contact with representatives of the government. By the early centuries C. E. absentee landlords who lived in the cities owned most rural land, while the land was worked by tenant fanners supervised by hired foremen. 5. Manufacture and trade flourished under the pax romana. Grain had to be imported to feed the huge city of Rome. Rome and the Italian towns (and later, provincial centers) exported glass, metalwork, pottery, and other manufactures to the provinces. Romans also imported Chinese silk and Indian and Arabian spices. 6. One of the effects of the Roman Empire was Romanization. In the western part of the Empire, the Latin language, Roman clothing, and the Roman lifestyle were adopted by local people. As time passed, Roman emperors gradually extended Roman citizenship to all free male adult inhabitants of the empire. F. The rise of Christianity 1. Jesus lived in a society marked by resentment against Roman rule, which had inspired the belief that a Messiah would arise to liberate the Jews. When Jesus sought to reform Jewish religious practices, the Jewish authorities in Jerusalem turned him over to the Roman governor for execution. 2. After the execution, Jesus disciples continued to spread his teachings; they also spread their belief that Jesus had been resurrected. At this point, the target of their proselytizing was their fellow Jews. 3. The target of proselytizing changed from Jews to non-Jews in the 40s-70s C. E. First Paul of Tarsus, an Anatolian Jew, discovered that non-Jews (gentiles) were much more receptive to the teachings of Jesus than Jews were. Second, a Jewish revolt in Judaea (66 C. E. ) and the subsequent Roman reconquest destroyed the original Jewish Christian community in Jerusalem. 4. Christianity grew slowly for two centuries, developing a hierarchy of priests and bishops, hammering out a commonly accepted theological doctrine, and resisting the persecution of Roman officials. By the late third century, Christians were a sizeable minority in the Roman Empire. 5. The expansion of Christianity in the Roman empire came at a time when Romans were increasingly dissatisfied with their traditional religion. This dissatisfaction inspired Romans to become interested in a variety of mystery cults and universal creeds that had their origins in the eastern Mediterranean. G. Technology and transformation 1. The Romans were expert military and civil engineers. Among their accomplishments were: bridge-building, ballistic weapons, elevated and underground aqueducts, the use of arches and domes, and the invention of concrete. 2. Following Augustus death, the army was organized primarily for defense. The Rhine-Danube frontier was protected by a string efforts; long walls protected the frontiers of North Africa and Britain. On the eastern frontier, the Romans fought for centuries against the Parthians. Neither side made any significant gains. 3. The state system constructed by Augustus worked well until what historians call Romes third-century crisis. The symptoms of this crisis were frequent change of rulers; raids by German tribesmen from across the Rhine-Danube frontier; and the rise of regional power when Rome seemed unable to guarantee security. 4. Romes economy was undermined by the high cost of defense, debasement of the currency and consequent inflation, a disruption of trade, reversion to a barter economy, disappearance of the municipal aristocracy of the provincial cities, and a movement of population out of the cities and back into the rural areas. 5. The emperor Diocletian (r, 284-305) saved the Roman state by instituting a series of reforms that included price controls and regulations that required certain people to stay in their professions and to train a son to succeed them. Some side effects of these reforms include a flourishing black market and a growing feeling of resentment against the government. 6. Constantine (r. 306-37) converted to Christianity in 337 and patronized the Christian church, thus contributing to the rise of Christianity as the official religion of the empire. Constantine also transferred the capital of the empire from Rome to the eastern city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. II. The Origins of Imperial China, 221 B. C. E. -220 C. E. (We covered very little of this information) A. Resources and population 1. China is a large region marked by significant ecological, topographical, biological, and climatic diversity. 2. The two most important resources that supported the imperial Chinese state were agricultural production and labor. Agricultural production in China was intensive and was taxed by the government. The most productive agricultural region was the Yangzi Valley, which began to be linked to the centers of political power (Changan and Luoyang) by canals. 3. Both the Qin and the Han governments exploited the labor power of rural China by demanding that peasant families supply men for labor and for service in the military. A periodic census and regularly updated records of land and households enabled officials to collect the proper amount of taxes, labor service, and military service. 4. Throughout antiquity, the Han Chinese people expanded at the expense of other ethnic groups. Han expanded into areas that were suitable for settled agriculture. They did not expand into areas that were suitable only for nomadic economies. B. Hierarchy, obedience, and belief 1. The family was the basic unity of society. The family was conceived of as an unbroken chain of generations including the ancestors as well as the current generations. Ancestors were thought to take an active interest in the affairs of the current generation, and they were routinely consulted, appeased, and venerated. 2. The teachings of Confucius were a fundamental source of values for family, social, and political organization. Confucius regarded hierarchy as natural and placed absolute authority in the hands of the father. Family members were thought of as part of the group, not as individuals. Confucius also believed that people would properly fulfill their roles if they were correctly instructed and imitated good role models. 3. According to the ideals of the upper classes, women were to cook, take care of household chores, respect their parents-in-law, and obey their husbands. Lower-class women may have been less constrained. Marriages were arranged, and a new wife had to prove herself to her husband and to her mother-in-law through hard work, obedience, devotion, and by bearing sons. 4. Chinese believed in a number of nature spirits to whom they sacrificed. Unusual natural phenomena were regarded as ill omens. The landscape was thought to channel the flow of evil and good power, and experts in fengshui (geomancy) were employed to identify the most fortunate location and orientation for buildings and graves. C. The first Chinese empire 1. After the Warring States Period (480-221 B. C. E. ), the state of Qin united China. Factors that enabled Qin to accomplish reunification may include: the ability and ruthlessness of the Qin ruler, Shi Huangdi and his prime minister, Li Si; Qins location in the Wei valley with its predominantly rural population of independent farming households; and Qins experience in mobilizing manpower for irrigation and flood-control projects, which had strengthened the central government. 2. Upon uniting China, the Qin established a strong centralized state on the Legalist model. Shi Huangdi and Li Si suppressed Confucianism, eliminated rival centers of authority, abolished primogeniture and slavery, and constructed a rural economy of free land-owning/tax-paying farmers. They standardized weights and measures, knit the empire together with roads and defended it with a long wall. 3. The oppressive nature of the Qin regime and its exorbitant demands for taxes and labor led to a number of popular rebellions that overthrew the dynasty after the death of Shi Huangdi in210 B. C. E. D. The long reign of the Han (206 B. c. s. -220 C. E. ) 1. Liu Bang, a peasant who defeated all other contestants for control of China, established the Han dynasty. The Han established a political system that drew on both Confucian philosophy and Legalist techniques. 2. After a period of consolidation, the Han went through a period of territorial expansion under Emperor Wu (r. 140-87 B. C. E. ). During the Western Han period (202 B. c. E. -8 C. E. ) the capital was at Changan. During the Eastern Han (23-22 C. E. ) the capital was at Luoyang. 3. Changan was an easily defended walled city with easy access to good arable land. The population in 2 C. E. was 246,000. Other cities and towns imitated the urban planning of Changan. 4. The elite ofChangan lived in lived in elegant multistoried houses arranged on broad, well-planned boulevards. They dressed in fine silks, were connoisseurs of art and literature, and indulged in numerous entertainments. The common people lived in closely packed houses in largely unplanned, winding alleys. 5. The emperor was supreme in the state and in society. He was regarded as the Son of Heaven, the link between heaven and the human world. Emperors were the source of law. But anything that went seriously wrong could be interpreted to mean that the emperor was guilty of misrule and that he was losing the Mandate of Heaven. Emperors lived in seclusion, surrounded by a royal retinue that included wives, family, servants, courtiers, and officials. 6. The central government was run by two chief officials and included a number of functionally specialized ministers. Local officials collected taxes, drafted men for corvee labor and military service, and settled local disputes. Most people had no contact with the central government. 7. Local officials were supplied by a class of moderately wealthy, educated local landowners that historians refer to as the gentry. The gentry adopted Confucianism as their ideology and pursued careers in the civil service. E. Technology and trade 1. In the field of metallurgy, China advanced from bronze to iron by about 500 B. C. E. Rather than make wrought-iron goods (as the Romans did), Chinese ironworkers melted the iron and used molds to make harder and more durable cast-iron and steel tools and weapons. 2. Other technological innovations of the Han period include the crossbow, cavalry, the watermill, and the horse collar. New transportation and communications technology included a road system, courier systems for carrying government communications, and canals. 3. The Han period also saw significant growth in the size and number of urban areas. Somewhere from 10 to 30 percent of the population of Han China lived in towns. 4. Long-distance commerce was a significant part of the Han economy. The most important export was silk, and the most important export route was the Silk Road through Central Asia. The Chinese government sought to control this route by sending armies and colonists to Central Asia. F. Decline of the Han Empire 1. The Han Empires major security problem was the nomadic tribes on its northern border. Nomadic groups were usually small, but during the Han, the Chinese faced a confederacy of nomads called the Xiongnu. China attempted to deal with the Xiongnu threat by strengthening its defenses (particularly its cavalry) and by making more compliant nomads into tributaries. 2. The Han Empire was undermined by a number of factors. First, the expense of defending the northern borders was a tremendous financial burden. Second, nobles and merchants built up large landholdings at the expense of the small farmers. These large landholders were able to resist taxation and became independent of government control. Third, the system of military conscription broke down and the central government had to rely on mercenaries whose loyalty was questionable. 3. These factors compounded by factionalism at court, official corruption, peasant uprisings, and nomadic attacks led to the fall of the dynasty in 220 C. E. China entered a period of political fragmentation that lasted until the late sixth century. III. Imperial Parallels A. Similarities Between the Roman and Han Empires 1. The Han and Roman Empires were similar in respect to their family structure and values, their patterns of land tenure, taxation, and administration, and in their empire building and its consequences for the identity of the conquered areas. 2. Both empires faced common problems in terms of defense, and found their domestic economies undermined by their military expenditures. 3. Both empires were overrun by new peoples who were then deeply influenced by the imperial cultures of Rome and of China. B. Differences Between the Roman and Han Empires 1. In China, the imperial model was revived and the territory of the Han empire re-unified. The former Roman empire was never again reconstituted. 2. Historians have tried to explain this difference by pointing to differences between China and the Roman world in respect to the concept of the individual, the greater degree of social mobility in Rome than in Han China, and the different political ideologies and religions of the two empires. Conclusion A. The Qin and the Han were able to unify China and build an empire rapidly because the basis had already been set in the Zhou and Warring States Periods; Rome constructed its empire slowly and without precedents to draw upon. B. The Han and the Roman empires maintained and administered large territories and populations by virtue of their ability to organize large professional armies and professional bureaucracies. C. Both empires provided long periods of peace and prosperity, but they were undermined by the high cost of defense and by the heavy tax burden, which this put on their people. D. The Han dynasty constructed a political system that would be revived and modified by subsequent dynasties; the Roman empire was never restored.

Biography of Chanakya (Kautilya)

Biography of Chanakya (Kautilya) INTRODUCTION â€Å"The extraordinary thoroughness of Kautilyas’s work, its eminent inductiveness and practical character, its unflinching logic, heedlessness of adventitious moral or religious standard and its wide range of subjects and interests gave it a unique combination of features..†[1] -D.R.Bhandarkar In Indian history, the centuries to come and that passed by, are recorded many great persons and legendary characters who shaped time through their extraordinary deeds and their excellence in every skill. But among of them, Kautilya may be the only one personality who has been respected and accepted as a brilliant person not only by Indian scholars but also western Scholars too. Kautilya was great political philosopher and thinker. We have been described as a great teacher, shrewd statesman, devoted patriot, deep thinker, ruthless administrator, master strategist, selfless ascetic, ideal philosopher and true saint.[2] He is called all-rounder because he got mastery in all the branches of knowledge. He was well versed in commerce, warfare, Politics, Economics and Vedas. He lived around the third century B.C. but even today his ideas and principles show relevancy and applicability in the present day society. He is a historical milestone in the making of India. Kautilya is the greatest person with wisdom and knowledge. He is regarded pioneer in the field of Economics. The credit of establishment of Mauryan Empire goes to the foresight and knowledge of Kautilya. He was a key advisor and councilor of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Mauryan Empire. â€Å"This empire was not merely composed of a number of unrelated districts brought together under single sceptra; it was a real unit based on common government which everywhere not only established the king’s authority but the public good.[3] Kautilya was chief architect of his rise to power so he is called kingmaker too. A man full of vision; he was always prepared for the worst. He had the guts to speak his heart out even in front of the rulers. He himself lived such a life, refusing all adornments, compassion towards the poor and evil to deceit when needed which shows some of his good characteristics of nature. Kautilya was a professor at the University of Takshashila which is located near Peshawar in Paki stan. He was the first man to envision the first Indian Empire by unification of the various small kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent. His prominent works are Nitishastra, Chanakya Niti and Arthashastra. Among these, Arthshastra was most important. He considered economic activity as driving force behind the functioning of any political action. Kautilya was a true thinker who bridged the gap between knowledge and vision. For Kautilya, good governance was supreme. LIFE SKETCH OF KAUTILYA – Unfortunately There is not certainity about the time period of the Kautilya So, details of his birth and life are not dependable and we have to rely on tradition. The expected period of the Kautilya is from 350-283 B.C.E. There are very few real historical facts about his birth and death except that he helped Chandragupta to mount the throne, to strengthen his empire and to unite the Indian states for fighting against Alexander of Macedonia around 327 B.C.E. Chandragupta Maurya established the Mauryan Empire in the year 321 B.C.E. Kautilya was probably born around 350 B.C.E. This shows that Kautilya was junior contemporary of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.). There is no proof that Kautilya was affected by Aristotleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s idea. Some historians have â€Å"questioning about Kautilyaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s existence†. His place of birth is not assured. Some say that he got the name Chanakya because he was born in China. The Buddhist mentions his birthplace as Takshashila while Jaina scripture mention his birthplace as Chanak in Gola district of South India. According to one version, birthplace of Chanakya was Dravida so one of the Chanakyaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s various names was Dramila. Some believes his birthplace was Patliputra. However, Kautilyaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s birthplace will continue to remain a disputation. Kautilya had two other two names – Chanaka and vishnugupta. As he was born in the village of chanaka, he was called chanakya , Dr. Ganapati Shastri is of the opinion that he was born in the ‘ kutala’ gotra. Hence he was named as Kautilya. His parents gave him the name of Vishnugupta at ‘namkaran’ ceremony.[4] When Kautilya was born, he had blessed with the full set of teeth, which showed that child will become king or emperor. Rishi Chanak was a Kautilya’s father who was learned Brahmin. He was a teacher teacher so he knew the importance of education. He started teaching his son Kautilya in his early age. In his early age, Kautilya was well versed in Vedas; though he memorized them completely at early age, At that ancient time, the Vedas were considered as the toughest scripture to study. He was also taught mathematics, geography and science along with religion. Right from his childhood, Kautilyaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s wisdom and shrewdness was visible and effective. His favorite subject was Politics. Kautilya had seen very difficult circumstances from his childhood. His father,Chanak was erudite, decent and self respected Brahmin. He opposed injustice or immortal deeds. The fraudulent and arrogant king Dhannanda did not like him naturally. The king disparated the rightness of Chanak so he harassed Chanakà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s family for fake reasons. Chanak was put in prison by the king. He died in prison. No one raised a voice against the injustice with Chanak. Kautilya was a very little boy that time. He was extremely sad because of his fatherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s death and injustice happened with h is family. After his fatherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s death, his life was also in danger. So he left Patliputra by taking an oath that he would return and fight against injustice and take revenge against Dhannanda. Kautilya had his education at a famous university of Takshashila which was very reputed one at that time. Being a Brahmin of strong determination anf strong will, he thought to take revenge from Nanda King of Patliputra. He left the capital humiliated and he went to search for a warrior. On his way, he came across the young Chandragupta. He found in the latter a promising young man and started the campaign for his installation on the throne of Magadha. Their First attempt Proved to be a failure. However eventually, Chandragupta regrouped his forces, overwhelmed the borderstates and launched onslaught on the capital. The wicked king- Dhannanda best of Nanda dynasty wa skilled in 322BC. Thus a new dynasty-Maurya was established with Chandragupta Maurya enthroned as the king of Magadha in 321 BC and reigned upto 298 BC. The credit for this victory goes to kautilya widely accepted name whose diplomatic skill and encyclopaedic knowledge of administration enabled Chandragupta, his pupil not only to triumph against the Nandas but also consolidate his empire.[5] [1] Vishnoo Bhagwan, Indian Political Thinkers,Atma Ram Sons publications,p.30 [2] Retrieved from http://www.chanakya.com/chanakya.htm on 20 Mar.2014.11.28PM [3] Paul Masson-Oursel et al: Ancient India and Indian Civilization,p.37 [4] Sankaracharya : Commentary on Kamandaka [5] Vishnoo Bhagwan, Indian Political Thinkers,Atma Ram Sons publications,p.31

Biogram Of Nathaniel Hawthorn, How His Life Relates To Scarlet Letter :: essays research papers

BIOGRAM   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The man Nathaniel Hawthorne, an author of the nineteenth century, was born in 1804, in Salem, Massachusetts. It was there that he lived a poverty-stricken childhood without the financial support of a father, because he had passed away in 1808. Hawthorne was raised strictly Puritan, his great-grandfather had even been one of the judges in the Puritan witchcraft trials during the 1600s. This and Hawthorne’s destitute upbringing advanced his understanding of human nature and distress felt by social, religious, and economic inequities. Hawthorne was a private individual who fancied solitude with family friends. He was also very devoted to his craft of writing. Hawthorne observed the decay of Puritanism with opposition; believing that is was a man’s responsibility to pursue the highest truth and possessed a strong moral sense. These aspects of Hawthorne’s philosophy are what drove him to write about and even become a part of an experiment in social reform, in a utopian colony at Brook Farm. He believed that the Puritans’ obsession with original sin and their ironhandedness undermined instead of reinforced virtue. As a technician, Hawthorne’s style in literature was abundantly allegorical, using the characters and plot to acquire a connection and to show a moral lesson. His definition of romanticism was writing to show truths, which need not relate to history or reality. Human frailty and sorrow were the romantic topics, which Hawthorne focused on most, using them to finesse his characters and setting to exalt good and illustrate the horrors of immorality. Nathaniel Hawthorne’s experiences as a man, incite as a philosopher and skill as a technician can be seen when reading The Scarlet Letter.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The man, Nathaniel Hawthorne’s religious background, seclusion from society, and devotion to his craft can be related to his novel The Scarlet Letter. His religious upbringing as a Puritan is what gave him the knowledge to write about Boston’s Puritan society in his novel. Hawthorne’s great-grandfather, who one of the judges at the Puritan witchcraft trials, was like the magistrates of The Scarlet Letter that attempted to make a society that would be a â€Å"Utopia of human virtue and happiness†. A further parallel found between Hawthorne’s life and the novel is the element of seclusion found in each. Hawthorne secluded himself from society with his few family members and close friends. In the same way Hester Prynne was secluded from society in her â€Å"little, lonesome dwelling† that â€Å"stood on the shore, looking across a basin of the sea at the forest-covered hills toward the west† out of the circle of the to wn.

Mythical Gods :: essays research papers

Mythical Gods Zeus - GÃ ¸d of the sky, the clouds, and the rain. Normally seen holding a thunderbolt. Represented by an Eagle. Married Hera and had many children from many affairs. Poseidon - Brother of Zeus, and ruler of the sea. Seen with a trident and connected to horses and bulls. Hera - Sister and wife of Zeus. Protector of marriage and ally of married women. Cow and Peacock were important to her. Hades - Ruler of the underworld and of the dead. Also lord of wealth (his Latin name means rich). Owned a helmet that made people invisible. Married Persephone who became queen of the underworld. Athena - Born from the head of Zeus in full armor without a mother She was his favorite child. The Goddess of the City she domesticated horses for human use. Represented by owl and olive tree. Apollo - Love child of Zeus and Leto. GÃ ¸d of music, art, archery, and sometimes the sun. Portrayed as many animals, crow and dolphin to name a few. Artemis - Twin sister of Apollo. Goddess of the wild and hunter for the GÃ ¸ds. Partial to all woodland creatures especially the deer. Aphrodite - Goddess of Love and of Beauty. Born from the foam of the sea. Irresistible to man and to GÃ ¸d alike. Represented as a dove or a swan. Hermes - Grandson of Atlas. Messenger of Zeus. Shown wearing a small helmet and sandals with wings on them. Also an expert theif. Most commonly used GÃ ¸d in all mythology. Ares - GÃ ¸d of war. Hated by his parents, Zeus and Hera. Most ruthless and forceful of the GÃ ¸ds. Shown as the vulture and as the dog. Hephaestus - GÃ ¸d of Fire. Often said to be ugly as opposed to the other rulers. Created women out of gold that helped him at home with his chores. Hestia - The Goddess of the hearth or the home.

Restraint, Weight Suppression, and Self-Report Reliability: How Much D :: essays research papers

In the analytical report entitled Restraint, Weight Suppression, and Self-Report Reliability: How Much Do You Really Weigh? By P.J. Morgan and D.B. Jeffrey, they look at the eating habits of people and categorize them as three types of people. Those categories are Dieting and Overeating group, Current Dieting, and Weight Suppression. The Dieting/Overeating group consists of "individuals who undergo repetitive cycles of dieting and overeating,"(Morgan, 1999). They have the appearance of a diet, but overeat every once in a while to make up for it and to fulfill food desires. The Current Dieting group "encompasses those who consider themselves to be currently on a diet and who consume less food than what is required than what is required for maintenance of their current weight," (Morgan, 1999). They are ones that eat small portions of food and starve themselves to keep their weight down or to lose weight. This can also be categorized as anorexia nervosa, a clin ical eating disorder that afflicts primarily women. The last category is the Weight Suppressors, who "successfully lost weight and have kept it off for some time," (Morgan, 1999). These people have lost the weight by some means and have kept the weight off by adopting better eating and exercise habits. The groups were split into two groups, the control group and the variable group. The experiment was to see what the effects would be on each type of person in the variable group when enticed with a milkshake "Preload" which tastes better than a regular milkshake and is higher in fat and calories. The control group would not receive the "Preload" shake so the experimenters could monitor normal reactions of persons from each group. The result was the "Preload" group ate more than the control group regardless of their category. The authors concluded that the dieting and appetite suppression is a mental game of the person and is only as strong as their own conscience and taste. However, that is only one way to look at the information. The structural functionalist perspective focuses on the manifest and latent reasons for dieting. The manifest reason a person to diet is to look better physically. Physical acceptability is very important to people, both male and female alike. It is a part of out status as a human and gives value to our appearance as well. The latent function is to make ourselves healthier inside and out, by improving our immune system and eliminating cholesterol from our blood vessel, which could cause blockage.

Explain with examples how the theoretical perspective of the researcher accepts choice of method

The choice of method used to collect data is used by the theory that the given sociologist accepts. Most sociological theories have certain types of data they tend to collect, and certain methods that they choose to adopt. The two techniques used are quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative techniques are used to measure distribution and the extent of a social characteristic. This technique is also useful when comparing two social variables such as social class and educational achievement. The technique provides a percentage or numerical feedback, allowing a statistical approach to sociological research. This type of research relies heavily on secondary data, i.e. research not collected by other parties, such as official statistics and social surveys, especially ones involving a formal interview. The Quantitative research technique is favoured highly by positivists who see measurement and statistics as a crucial element in making sociology more scientific. This technique can easily be duplicated, repeated and classified to achieve the same results, meaning the conclusion can be confirmed as fact. Positivists may also create their own primary material through creating questionnaires or structured interviews. The second research technique is Qualitative. Qualitative research is not based on measurements or statistics, and is useful if the researcher does not require a quantified figure or if the subject that is being studied cant be precisely measured. This style works well with participant observation as the observer may want to simply observe behaviour rather than record it. Interpretivists prefer the Qualitative technique as they employ methods such as in depth interviews, non-participant and participant observation. These methods are not easily repeated and no two observations may be the same, but that are still very valid. Traditionally, those who followed positivism were the Structuralists, the Functionalists and to a certain degree the Marxists. The Structuralists believe that the system of society took greater precedence than the elements within the system, so individuals are directed by society. Functionalists like Durkheim and Parsons believed that the actions of the individuals in society were controlled by the cultural system that they belonged to. Marx tried to apply more generalised historical social laws to his theories to try and predict society's future. However, some positivists have criticised him for not being scientific enough, and claim that his ideas are merely theoretical. The main body of interpretivism is made up of Phenomenologists and ethnomethodoligists. Phenomenologists are concerned with understanding how humans understand their environment and the world around them. The distinction between Phenomenology and positivism is often exaggerated. For example, Durkheim, the founding father of Functionalism did not stick rigidly to his own methodology. He made mental sketches of what it was like to be a Roman Catholic or Protestant. Ethnomethodology looks at how humans categorise the world around them, how people give meaning to their social world. This approach is only concerned with the subjective approach. Some sociologists do not fit directly into a category, interpretivist or positive. Symbolic interactionists such as Becker are commonly described as interpretivists as they understand they must appreciate the point of view of the actor, nevertheless, they still try to maintain a casual relationships. Some develop hypotheses and assess these against further evidence. Another example of a sociologist who crossed the boundaries was Cicourel, and ethnomethodoligist also used statistics to study juvenile justice. In modern times, theoretical commitment is not seen as important as structure and action and a mixed of methods is employed. For example Lea and Young have both used in depth interviews and statistics when analysing crime. Important points to take into consideration are that some techniques are better at analysing phenomenon than others. For example you would have great difficulty using social survey or official statistics to study police brutality or new age travellers. Some methods may be rejected as unethical such as covert participant research. Practical considerations are also noted. Time, money and number of collaborators may be affected if research is funded by a particular body. In conclusion, tradition dictates that there are only two choices of research technique that are adopted by different social theories, but in reality however, many sociologists find that the best way to achieve reliable and valid results is by combining both qualitative and quantitative.

Burden Invasive Pneumococcal Disease Health And Social Care Essay

Streptococcus pneumoniae claims 1 million child deceases every twelvemonth worldwide ( 1 ) . Approximately 90 % of deceases occur in developing states. For every 1 kid that dies of pneumonia in a developed state, more than 2000 kids dice of pneumonia in developing states ( 2 ) . The SAARC states overall are in the zone with high incidence of pneumococcal disease ( 1 ) but no survey has attempted to happen out the same. The child mortality rates ( & lt ; 5 ) are high in the part ; runing from 17/1000 for Srilanka to 149/1000 for Afghanistan. Pneumonia claims 11 % of U5 child deceases in India, Maldives, Bangladesh and Pakistan ; 23 % of U5 child deceases in Afghanistan and 19 % in Bhutan with lowest in Srilanka 6 % . ( 3 ) . Pneumonia is the taking cause of U5 decease in Pakistan ( 4 ) but merely 50 % receive antibiotic intervention ( 5 ) . The Million Death Study reported that pneumonia accounted for 27AÂ ·6 % deceases out of entire 12260 deceases in kids from 1-59 months ( 6 ) . S. pneumoniae is one of the major causes of fatal pneumonias in kids ( 7 ) . Besides pneumonia S.pn is besides known to do meningitis which is another fatal status for kids. Many more diseases are to the name of S.pn like ague otitis media, joint gushs and bacteraemia etc. Estimates of pneumococcal disease load are needed so as to use the resources for kid endurance. In Bangladesh, the theoretical account predicts a pneumococcal disease incidence of 3351 instances per 100,000 kids younger than 5 old ages. A population-based, active-surveillance, active-case sensing survey measured an invasive pneumococcal disease rate of 447 instances per 100,000 kids younger than 5 old ages ( 8 ) . Unfortunately the grounds for appraisal of pneumococcal disease in low/middle income states is less. The load of pneumococcal disease is highest in kids and the aged population in both more and less developed states. The intervention of pneumococcal infections is complicated by the world-wide outgrowth of opposition to penicillin and other antibiotics ( 9 ) . The pneumococcal conjugate vaccinums are helpful but the effectivity of these vaccinums is dependent upon the pneumococcal disease load and serotype coverage of the vaccinum. ( 10 )Aim:The primary aims of this systematic reappraisal are To cognize the load of invasive pneumococcal disease. To find the demand for debut of pneumococcal conjugate vaccinum in the immunisation agenda.Methods:We performed a systematic hunt of the published literature and besides tried to get information about the unpublished literature from assorted research workers of the part.Beginnings of Datas:The hunts were current as of January 2013 and we identified articles with information on pneumococcal invasive disease among kids & lt ; 5 old ages of age. We searched 3 Databases: Pubmed, Embase and The Cochrane library. The mention lists of the obtained articles were farther searched for surveies. Non English articles were non included. The hunt inside informations are given in the appendix I. Searching were done by 2 writers ( NJ, HK ) . HK helped in obtaining full text articles.Definitions Used:SAARC states: South Asian Association for Regional Co-Operation includes Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Srilanka and Maldives. Burden of pneumococcal disease: We have defined load of pneumococcal disease as the figure of positive pneumococcal isolates from the suspected population.Pneumonia:Symptoms: cough or hard external respiration, and marks: external respiration & gt ; 50 breaths per minute for infant aged two months to less than one twelvemonth, take a breathing & gt ; 40 per minute for kid aged one to five old ages, and no thorax indrawing, stridor or danger marks. ( 11 )Severe pneumonia:Symptoms: cough or hard eupneic plus any general danger mark or chest indrawing or stridor in a unagitated kid. General danger marks for kids aged two months to five old ages: unable to imbibe or suckle ; pukes everything ; paroxysms ; lethargy or unconscious ( 11 ) . Clinical diagnosing of meningitis is more straightforward than that of pneumonia. The definition of pneumonia is based on the incorporate direction of childhood infections ( IMCI ) attack, which includes other ague lower respiratory tract infections and deficiencies specificity. In add-on, aetiologic diagnosing of bacterial pathogens is easier in CSF than in blood.Meningitis: ( 11 )Suspected: Any individual with sudden oncoming of febrility ( & gt ; 38.5 AÂ °C rectal or & gt ; 38.0 AÂ °C axillary ) and one of the undermentioned marks: cervix stiffness, altered consciousness or other meningeal mark. Probable: A suspected instance with cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) scrutiny demoing at least one of the followers: cloudy visual aspect ; leucocytosis ( & gt ; 100 cells/mm3 ) ; leucocytosis ( 10-100 cells/ mm3 ) AND either an elevated protein ( & gt ; 100 mg/dl ) or decreased glucose ( & lt ; 40 mg/dl ) . Confirmed: A instance that is laboratory-confirmed by turning ( i.e. culturing ) or placing ( i.e. by Gram discoloration or antigen sensing methods ) a bacterial pathogen ( Hib, Diplococcus pneumoniae or meningococcus ) in the CSF or from the blood, in a kid with a clinical syndrome consistent with bacterial meningitis ( WHO, 2003 ) . Non Pneumonia Non Meningitis: All infections other than pneumonia and meningitis have been categorized under this header. Invasive Pneumococcal disease: When Diplococcus pneumoniae has been identified from one of the otherwise unfertile sites of the organic structure like blood, CSF, pleural fluid etc either by civilization or by LAT/PCR or other technique. The surveies where the defined instances have some other parametric quantities or if there were some other standards no effort was made to standardise them.Inclusion standards:Surveies ; prospective/retrospective ; with kids & lt ; 5years of age as /or portion of the studied population. Surveies done in infirmary or community scene. Surveies with possible informations available on S.pneumoniae isolated from kids & lt ; 5 old ages of age. Surveies with at least 12 months of surveillance were included in order to get the better of the seasonal nature of pneumococcal diseases. Surveies conducted in SAARC states. The inclusion was decided by 2 writers ( NJ, KK ) and choice appraisal was done by 2 writers ( NJ, KK ) . Discrepancies, if any, were resolved by treatment with 3rd writer ( MS ) and the finding of fact was considered concluding. If the exact information was non available we have contacted the writers and tried to decide the disagreements The surveies which have commented merely on pneumococcal serotypes & A ; /or antibiotic opposition have been excluded from pooled analysis. We excluded instance studies, columns, vaccinum surveies, literature reappraisals and the surveies in which nasopharyngeal aspirates, pharynx swabs or oropharyngeal swabs were the lone samples to find the causative being.Data aggregation and direction:Three writers ( BE ; AK, SS ) abstracted informations individually from the included surveies in a predesigned tabular array that included survey design, puting, no. of suspected instances, no. civilization samples taken & amp ; positive civilizations obtained, and no. positive civilizations for Diplococcus pneumoniae. The information from Hospital based surveies and population based surveies were abstracted individually. To decide the disagreements sing the abstracted informations treatment with the other referees were done and consensus was reached. Sing some losing informations the writers were contacted and if the disagreements were non resolved they were non taken up for pooled analysis. The community based surveies available merely give information about pneumococcal pneumonia instances in the community.Datas analysis:Data analysis was done utilizing CMA V2 by 4 writers ( NJ, MS, KK, and AA ) . The similar surveies were pooled together. Sub group analysis for finding the IPD load in India was done and besides sub-group analysis for finding IPD in kids & lt ; 5 old ages was done. The community based surveies, infirmary based prospective and retrospective surveies have besides been analyzed individually.Consequences:Datas reviewed:We found 700 published articles through electronics and manual searching. After rubric and abstract testing 40 full text articles were retrieved and 21 surveies ( 8, 12-31 ) were included for the reappraisal and 19 were excluded ( 32-50 ) ( fig 1 ) Community based surveies were non available from Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan & A ; Srilanka. Because the life conditions are about same and there is besides geographic similarity we have considered the surveies from Bangladesh and Pakistan as representative of the SAARC states. Similarly there were no infirmary based surveies from Afghanistan and Bhutan so we have taken the surveies from remainder of the states and generalized them for these states. We have included a sum of 21 surveies for this systematic reappraisal & A ; mentioned in tabular array I. The inclusion was decided by 3 writers ( MS, NJ, KK ) and quality marking was done by 3 writers ( MS, NJ, KK ) . The surveies with mark of 6 or more were considered to be good quality grounds.Hospital Based Prospective Surveies:SAARC states:We identified 15 infirmary based prospective surveies ( 12-19, 22, 24-27, 29, 31 ) from assorted SAARC states and analyzed them for finding the invasive pneumococcal disease load in kids populating in these states and besides did a subgroup analysis for kids less than 5 old ages of age. These surveies show that 3.5 % ( 95 % CI 1.9-6.4 ) of kids admitted to infirmaries with diagnosing of invasive diseases like terrible pneumonia or meningitis or sepsis are due to S. pn ( fig 3 ) . Eight surveies ( 13, 15, 16, 18, 24-27 ) show that 1.5 % ( 95 % CI 0.6-3.4 ) of kids admitted as terrible pneumonia have S. pn as the causative being ( Fig 5 ) . Ten surveies ( 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29 ) of the included surveies show that 7.6 % ( 95 % CI 4.1-13.7 ) of kids with likely or confirmed meningitis have S.pn as a causative being ( fig 7 ) . S.pn is one of the major bacteriums doing 20 % ( 95 % CI 12.9-29.9 ) of invasive bacterial diseases ( fig 4 ) . 11 % ( 95 % CI 6.5-17.9 ) of terrible bacterial pneumonia are caused by S.pn ( fig 6 ) . S.pn has been an aetiologic agent in 33.1 % ( 95 % CI 23.1-44.8 ) instances of bacterial meningitis ( fig 8 ) .Children less than 5 old ages of age:Out of the 15 surveies merely 11 surveies ( 13, 15, 17, 18, 22, 24-27, 29, 31 ) have clear information on invasive pneumococcal disease in kids less 5 old ages of age. The surveies show that S.pn causes 2.7 % ( 95 % CI 1.1-6.2 ) hospitalizations due to all invasive disease ; in kids & lt ; 5 old ages of age ( fig 9 ) . Merely 7 surveies ( 13, 15, 18, 24-27 ) had clear information on pneumococcal pneumonia in kids & lt ; 5 old ages of age and showed that 1.5 % ( 95 % CI 0.5-4.3 ) of terrible pneumonias are due to S.pn ( fig 11 ) . Similarly 6 surveies ( 17, 22, 24, 26, 29 ) showed that S.pn is the being responsible for 7.1 % ( 95 % CI 2.6-17.5 ) meningitis instances in the age group ( fig 13 ) . S.pn remains the major bacterial cause of all invasive diseases in kids U5 old ages of age doing 19.2 % ( 95 % CI 11.5-30.3 ) of invasive bacterial diseases ( fig 10 ) . 10.8 % ( 95 % CI 6.4-17.6 ) terrible bacterial pneumonias are due to S.pn ( fig 12 ) and 35.1 % ( 95 % CI 22.1-50.8 ) of pyogenic meningitis is due to S.pn. ( fig 14 ) .Bharat:We found 9 surveies from India ( 12-19, 22 ) which showed that S.pn causes 7.9 % ( 95 % CI 3.8-15.7 ) of invasive diseases in kids ( fig 15 ) . S.pn has been an aetiologic agent in 3.9 % ( 95 % CI 1.2-11.7 ) kids with terrible pneumonia ( fig 17 ) and is besides a major bacterial cause of pneumonia in kids doing 14 % ( 95 % CI 5.8-30.1 ) of bacterial pneumonias ( fig 18 ) . S.pn has been a causative agent in 10.4 % ( 95 % CI 5.8-18.1 ) of kids with meningitis ( fig 19 ) and once more a major bacterial cause of pyogenic meningitis ( fig 20 ) . The hospital prevalence of S.pn in Indian kids is more than that of all other SAARC states.Children les s than 5 old ages of age:Five surveies ( 13, 15, 17, 18, 22 ) gave clear information on pneumococcal diseases in kids under 5 twelvemonth of age in India. The image does non alter in this age group of Indian kids where S.pn is prevailing in 8.2 % ( 95 % CI 4.1-16.6 ) of all hospitalized kids with suspected invasive bacterial disease ( fig 21 ) and S.pn becomes a major bacterial cause of invasive bacterial diseases with 21.2 % ( 95 % CI 9.4-41.0 ) of all invasive bacterial diseases are due to S.pn ( fig22 ) . 5.4 % ( 95 % CI 2-14.1 ) of terrible pneumonias in infirmary wards are due to S. pn ( fig 23 ) & A ; 16.5 % ( 95 % CI 12.8-16.2 ) meningitis in kids less than 5 old ages describing to infirmaries are due to pneumococcus. In 13.6 % ( 95 % CI 5.5-29.8 ) of all bacterial pneumonia ( fig 24 ) & A ; 39.3 % ( 95 % CI 27.5-52.6 ) of pyogenic meningitis ( fig 26 ) S.pn has been isolated and is a major cause of these diseases in India.Hospital Based Retrospective Surveies:Two infirmary b ased retrospective surveies ( 21, 28 ) from India were included in this reappraisal. The pooling of these surveies together showed that 15.5 % ( 95 % CI 0.5-88 ) of invasive pneumococcal disease instances amongst the entire admitted patients with invasive bacterial diseases ( Fig 27 ) . The assurance intervals for this group are broad because one survey ( 21 ) which is merely on bacterial meningitis and has a little sample size with comparatively more proportion of pneumococcal isolates.Population Based Surveies:Four surveies ( 8, 20, 23, 30 ) from the SAARC states were included in the reappraisal. These surveies are from Pakistan and Bangladesh. These surveies merely discuss the kids under 5 old ages of age. These surveies show that approximately 13.4 % ( 95 % CI 6.7-25 ) of all invasive bacterial diseases in community are due to S. pn ( fig 29 )Inference of all the analysis:The consequence from the population based surveies ( 13.4 % ) is comparable to that from the infirmary based prospective surveies ( 19 % ) and besides to those obtained from retrospective surveies ( 15.5 % ) . The pneumococcal disease prevalence in SAARC states varies between 13 % – 19 % of all invasive bacterial diseases.Discussion:Our findings show that S. pn is prevailing in 19 % of all hospitalizations in kids of SAARC states and is hence one of the major cause of concern every bit far as child wellness is concerned. Pooling the Indian surveies we found that pneumococcal diseases are 25 % of all invasive bacterial diseases in kids of India. These figures might be an underestimation of the current state of affairs as the surveies discuss merely hospitalized instances, the milder signifiers may travel unreported. S.pn is a major bacterial cause for terrible pneumonia and besides for pyogenic meningitis in kids of this part. The community based surveies besides show that in 13 % of bacterial instances were due to S.pn but once more these surveies besides discussed the terrible dis eases merely and did non describe the milder signifiers. The consequences of our reappraisal are comparable to other reappraisals ( 1 ) which showed high prevalence of pneumococcal diseases in India. The consequences of community based surveies show that __ % of all bacterial invasive diseases in community are due to pneumococcus which is comparable to the consequence from the infirmary based prospective surveies. An unpublished information from one site of a multicentric test ( ISPOT survey ) from India showed that approx 38 % of kids with terrible pneumonia ( Radiologically confirmed ) had S. pn isolated from the nasopharyngeal aspirates or pharynx swabs. The survey besides showed that unwritten Amoxil administered at place was effectual in handling terrible pneumonia. The No Shots survey from Pakistan ( 51 ) concluded that place intervention with high dose unwritten Amoxil in instances of terrible pneumonia is tantamount to WHO recommendations of hospitalizations and i/v antibiotics. Similarly in another survey from Pakistan showed that local wellness workers were able to handle terrible pneumonia instances at place with high dosage Amoxil ( 52 ) . Survey from Bangladesh ( 53 ) reports the rhinal passenger car rate of 47 % and besides reports the early colonisation in rural population. The survey besides reports that 69 % of invasive strains were immune to cotrimoxazole. The ANSORP survey reported 41 % non-susceptible strains to penincillin in Srilanka and approximately 4 % in India ( 54 ) . The IBIS survey ( 16 ) reported 60 % opposition to chloramphenicol, Principen, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, or Erythrocin ; with 32 % isolates resistant to more than 3 antimicrobic drugs. Kunango et Al ( 55 ) reported that out of 150 clinical isolates from invasive pneumococcal infections, merely 11 ( 7.3 % ) isolates were comparatively immune to penicillin, although 64 were immune to one or more antibiotics particularly cotrimoxazole, Achromycin and Chloromycetin. In the ISCAP test ( 56 ) the opposition form of S. pneumoniae to assorted antibiotics was: cotrimoxazole 66.3 % , chloramphenicol 9.0 % , oxacillin 15.9 % and erythromycin 2.8 % .So the antibiotic opposition becomes another menace. In India, the most common serogroups colonising the nasopharynx of kids are 6, 14, 19, and 15 ( 38, 57 ) . IBIS survey ( 16 ) studies serotype 1,6 and 19 to be the most common serotypes isolated from either blood or CSF samples of the kids with invasive disease. Rijal et Al ( 49 ) found that serotypes 1,5 & A ; 4 were most normally isolated from the patients of IPD and besides reported that 52 % of isolates were immune to cotrimoxazole.Decision:The systematic reappraisal concludes that S. pneumoniae is a major bacterial cause of invasive bacterial diseases in kids of SAARC states. The outgrowth of immune strains of Diplococcus pneumoniae are indicating towards the demand for revisiting the intervention recommendations and besides do a call for explicating preventative steps to decrease the prevalence of invasive pneumococcal diseases. The usage of antibiotic which is less immune and easy to administrate should be considered. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccinum, after cognizing the preval ent serotypes and there coverage, should be considered by the policy shapers. Conflict of Interests: None stated Role of the Funding Agency: The reappraisal was supported and funded by ICMR, New Delhi. The support bureau did non interfere with the reappraisal procedure or the consequences. Recognitions: We would wish to thank Dr. Samir K Saha ( ICDDR, Bangladesh ) , Dr. Z.A. Bhutta & A ; Dr S.Q. Nizami ( AKU, Karachi, Pakistan ) for supplying us with their publications on pneumonia ; we would besides wish to thank Dr. Kay Dickerson of John Hopkins University U.S. for assisting us with the statistical methods.